Ocean Planning in the Poles: A Comparative Analysis of Governance Challenges and Practices

Abstract

The Arctic and Antarctic regions are two of the Earth’s most unique places, both enshrining a range of environmental, scientific, historic, and intrinsic values that need to be protected. With the acceleration of global environmental change, and the increase of human activities and related pressures in these regions, developing sustainable ocean planning and governance processes is crucial. Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a public process of analysing and allocating the distribution of human activities in marine areas, that aims to balance multiple social, economic, and political objectives while ensuring a healthy ocean. Several studies have addressed the benefits and challenges of developing MSP in polar regions. However, a comparative analysis of MSP-related governance challenges and practices in the Arctic and the Antarctic has not been developed so far. The present dissertation intended to address this gap, by (1) investigating the existing MSP initiatives and governance mechanisms for the Arctic and the Antarctic; (2) identifying the main challenges, issues, and constraints related to such initiatives; and (3) pinpointing a set of recommendations to overcome identified challenges and support a sustainable use of the ocean. The study built on a global survey conducted online (which collected over 200 responses from c. 31 countries), as well as on a small number of dedicated interviews carried with renowned experts on polar regions. Overall, survey respondents were very knowledgeable about the Arctic and the Antarctic, but less familiar with the concept of MSP. Results showed that the most identified human pressures and challenges in these regions pertained to climate change and the loss of ice-dependent species, followed by new navigation routes and the demand for new conservation areas. As for respondents’ knowledge on MSP initiatives applicable to the Arctic and the Antarctic, a number of initiatives were identified, although many did not correspond to actual marine spatial plans. The most identified challenge for the development of MSP initiatives in polar regions pertained to realpolitik factors (that is, institutional or governance constraints and limitations), followed by the integration of social and cultural dimensions, or access to monitoring and evaluation tools. To preserve the Arctic, the region must be seen as a unique, dynamic system, rather than a collection of national areas from the different Arctic States. The implementation of the Arctic Treaty highlighted existing governance challenges that could be addressed through the inclusion of a wide range of stakeholders in decision making (even if informally) to explore options for addressing the growing need for coordination of the Arctic Ocean regime complex. In the Antarctic, the Antarctic Treaty System has been considered as a successful example of international governance. Nevertheless, to respond to climate change and the high demand for tourism in the region, new specific goals and objectives need to be established (e.g., creating an adaptive management program for tourism, establishing a permanent Tourism Advisory Group). Both regions would benefit from the development of “effort maps”, characterizing all anthropogenic activities in the region and identifying cause-effect interconnections. It is also essential that existing and future MSP initiatives have appropriate tools to evaluate and monitor marine spatial plans overtime. The development of SMARTER objectives, and the elaboration of hypothetical future scenarios for polar regions are also fundamental to ensure the long-term sustainable use of polar regions.